Chronological tables by topics

Guglielmo Gulotta
Avvocato Prof. Ordinario di Psicologia Giuridica
Università di Torino
Facoltà di Psicologia
with
Antonietta Curci
Università di Bari

Until the 1st World War…

Experiments

1897: M. Wertheimer and W. Wundt (Germany), on free associations.

1905: C. G. Jung (Switzerland), on free associations.

1893: J. M. Cattell (USA) on eyewitness psychology.

Psychologists in the Courtrooms

1843 (U.K.): In The Queen c. McNaghten, a psychiatrist was requested to evaluate the defendant's state of health at the moment of the criminal act. The Court accepted his opinion and the defendant was judged not guilt.

1892: W. Wundt's pupil, K. Marbe, testified about reaction times in a car accident. He showed that it was impossible for the drive to avoid the collision with a train.

1896: Schrenk-Notzing was the first forensic psychologist. In München he testified about suggestibility and recall errors in a murder trial.

R. Sommer (Psychiatric Clinic University of Giessen, Germany) gave some expert opinions in three District Courts and in some prisons of the Grand Duchy.

1911: J. Varendonk (Belgium), testified in a sexual abuse trial.

1911: K. Marbe (Germany), testified in two civil and criminal trials. He was the first psychologist who gave his opinion in a civil trial.

1885 (Canada): Psychiatrists' opinions were requested in the judgement against L. Riel and in some others in the same period.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, since the influence of the German researcher Wundt, the Courts were rejecting the applications of the psychology to the law.

Books and Papers

1882: G. Ziino, La fisio-patologia del delitto (The Fisio-pathology of Crime).

1885: S. Sighele, La folla delinquente (The Criminal Mob).

1895: G. Vacchelli, Le basi psicologiche del diritto pubblico (Psychological Bases of Public Law); L. Ferrarini, Minorenni delinquenti. Saggio di Psicologia Criminale (Young Criminals: An Essay of Criminal Psychology).

1896: G. Bonanno, Il delinquente per passione. Studi di Psicologia Criminale (The Criminal by Passion. Studies on Criminal Psychology).

Since 1905: Papers of Ferrari, Ferri, Renda, Consoni, De Sanctis, Fiore & al. on "Rivista di Psicologia".

1905: C. Lombroso, La psicologia dei testimoni nei processi penali (Eyewitness Testimony in Criminal Trials), "Scuola Positiva", 15.

1906: M. Longo, Psicologia Criminale (Criminal Psychology); paper on witness testimony in vol. XXVII of the "Archivio di Psichiatria".

1908: V. A. Berardi, Giudici e testimoni. Studio di Psicologia Giudiziaria (Judges and Witnesses: A Study of Judiciary Psychology).

1909: U. Fiore, Manuale di Psicologia giudiziaria (Handbook of Judiciary Psychology); G. Dattino, La psicologia dei testimoni (The Witness Psychology).

1909-1910: The "Cesare Beccaria Society" (Milano) issued a collection on "Studi Penitenziari" (Penitentiary Studies). The summaries of two meetings of the Society were also included. One dealt with Osservazione clinica del giudicabile (The Defendant Clinical Observation); the other dealt with I minori e la legge in Italia (The Young Persons and the Law in Italy).

1910: U. Fiore, Il valore psicologico della testimonianza (The Psychological Meaning of the Testimony).

1912: Monography of the journal "Psiche" about some topics concerning forensic psychology.

1916: M.L. Patrizi, Dopo Lombroso. Nuove correnti nello studio della genialità e del delitto (After Lombroso: New Trends in the study on Cleverness and Crime).

1953: M. Cubì (Spain) published some papers where phrenology is used to study criminal behavior.

1887: F. de Aramburu y Zuloaga (Spain), La nuova ciencia penal (exposicion y critica).

1900: Binet (France), La suggestibilité, and some other paper in "Année Psychologique".

1903: W. Stern (Germany), Beiträge zur Psychologie der Aussage.

1904: M. Wertheimer, J. Klein (Germany), Psychologische Tatbestandsdiagnostik. Ideen zu psychologish-experimentellen Methoden zum Zweck der Festellung der Anteilnahme eines Menschen an einem Tatbestande.

1905: A. Binet (France), La science du témoignage; H. Gross (Germany), Kriminal Psychologie.

1906-1907: C. Jung (Switzerland), Diagnostische Assoziations-studies.

1906: S. Freud (Austria), Tatbestandsdiagnostik und Psychoanalyse.

1906: C. G. Jung (Switzerland), Zur psychologischen Tatbestandsdiagnostik; Die psychologische Diagnose des Tatbestandes.

1908: W. Stern (Germany), Zeitschrift für Angewande Psychologie.

1910: F. Santamaria (Spain), gave a spech about Psicologia del testimonio, for the "Asociación Española para el Progreso de las Ciencias".

1912: F. Santamaria (Spain), Los Pentidos. Lecciones elementales de psicometria dadas en la scuela de Criminologia de Madrid.

1908: Münsterberg, On the Witness Stand; after one year, this book was largely criticized by Wigmore in a paper issued in "Illinois Law Review".

1909-1917: Each year (except in 1916), one paper about forensic psychology was published on the "Psychological Review". The "Journal of Criminal Law and Criminology" and the "American Journal of Psychology" followed this example.

1903: Rome - 1st compulsory Course for Police Officers, supervised by Ottolenghi.

1905: School for Scientific Police Officers, in Ferrara, supervised by Cappelletti;

Istituto Pedagogico Forense (Forensic Educational Institute), in Milan.

A.Y. 1905/06: Lectures on Criminal Psychology at Royal University, Rome.

1906: First voluntary institution for the custody of young persons, Rome.

1907: Regulations for the Governmental Reformatories.

1909: Committee n. 4 for the study of the juvenile delinquents and the issue of the Special Code (the resulting project would not be followed).

1912: Scuola di Applicazione giuridico-criminale (Legal-Criminal School), Rome, supervised by E. Ferri.

A.Y. 1912-13: Specialization Course on Criminology in Turin, with lectures by M. L. Patrizi.

1840 (Spain): Lectures by Mata on Legal Medicine, at University of Madrid.

Last Decades of the Nineteenth Century (Spain): The "Correcionalismo" emphasizes the ethical value of the punishment. Its main scholars were C. Arenal, F. Giner de Los Ríos, L. Simarro & P. Dorado Montero.

1894 (Germania): In Dresdan, during a meeting of the German Psychiatric Society, R. Sommer presented a paper about criminal psychology. He proposed to unite the Lombroso's opinions with a new theory on psychological criminal tendencies.

1903 (Spain): Criminology School, in Madrid.

1909: Juvenile Psychopathic Institute.

Civil Institutes

1913 (USA): The Mediation and Conciliation Service, in the Labour Department.

During the 1st World War, psychologists worked as psychometricians, supervised by psychiatrists. They were especially interested in the lie detector. They were also dealing with victims of post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD).

Between the 1st and the 2nd World War...

Experiments

1939 (Germania): Stern, who was pioneering laboratory studies on testimony, began also to work in some "more natural" contexts.

1921: In State vs. Driver, a psychologist gave his opinion about an attempted rape on a 12 years old victim. He used some psychological tests and concluded that the victim was not reliable. The Court rejected this opinion by ruling that medical and psychological tests were not suitable to detect lies. As a consequence for many years in USA psychologists were no more admitted in trials.

1920: S. De Sanctis & S. Ottolenghi, Trattato di psicopatologia forense (Essay on Forensic Psychopathology).

1922: L. Battistelli, La bugia nei normali, nei criminali, nei folli (Lies in Normal, Criminal and Mad People); L. Ferrante Capetti, Reati e psicopatie sessuali (Offences and sexual psychopathies).

1923: G. Donà, La testimonianza nel fatto comune e nella vicenda giudiziaria (The Testimony in Ordinary and Judiciary Contexts); S. Sighele, I delitti della folla studiati secondo la psicologia, il diritto e la giurisprudenza (The Mob Crimes studied by psychology, law, and jurisprudence).

1925: E. Altavilla, Psicologia giudiziaria (Judiciary Psychology).

1928: G. Donà, La delinquenza negli affari (Business Criminality).

1930: M. L. Patrizi, Addizioni al "Dopo Lombroso". Ancora sulla genesi psicologica del delitto (Additions to the "After Lombroso": Again on the Psychological Origin of the Crime).

1931: C. L. Musatti, Elementi di psicologia della testimonianza (Foundations of Eyewitness Psychology).

1934: L. Zeppieri, Delinquenti e delitti (Criminals and Crimes)

1918-1933 (Germany): K. Wilmanns was the head of the Department of Psychiatry of the University of Heidelberg and contributed to the development of the forensic and criminal psychiatry.

1922 (Spain): F. Santamaria, La costumbre y las normas éticas y jurídicas. Psicologia del testimonio.

1924 (France): Gorphe, La critique du témoignage.

1929 (Austria): Reik, Geständniszwang und Strafbedürfnis. Between 1915 and 1933 Freud wrote some essays on neurotic criminal and criminal law.

1929 (Germany): Alexander & Staub, Der Verbrecher und seine Richter.

1929 (Spain): M. Ruiz Funes, Endocrinologia y Criminalidad.

1930 (Spain): Camargo Marin, El psicoanálisis y la practica judicial.

From 1931 (Spain): E. Mira y Lopez lectured on legal psychology at the Faculty of Law of the University of Barcelona. From 1934 he lectured on forensic psychology at the Autonomous University of Barcelona.

1932 (Spagna): Mira y López, Manual de psicologia juridica; R. Vasquez & M. Hidalgo, Lo incosciente y el crimen.

1934 (Germany): K. Meggendorfer published the paper Forensische Psychiatrie in which he discussed the doctrine underlying the Nazis' proposed reform of the civil and penal law.

1943 (Spagna): Jiménez de Asua, El psicoanálisis criminal. The first edition, entitled Valor de la psicologia profunda in ciencias penales, issued in 1935.

1917 (India): P. Chandra Bose, Introduction to Juristic Psychology.

1920-1930 (USA): Lawyers became interested in psychology and social sciences. They tried to adopt the method more than the results of psychology (see the papers by McCarty, Brown, Cairns, Robinson).

Realists adopted two methodological perspectives: Behaviorism and Psychoanalysis.

1935 (USA): F. Alexander & W. Healy, Roots of Crime; E. Robinson, Law and the Lawyers.

1941 (Mexico): G. R. Lafora, La concepción moderna del criminal nato.

1919: the Minister of Justice Mortara in the Royal Committee admitted Psychologists and psychiatrists for the Reform of the Italian Criminal Law. In 1921 the resulting project (Progetto Ferri) was presented.

1934: Observation Centres for Young Persons were set up in order to investigate the personality of young criminals and ensure to them the best social recovery.

1935: Juvenile Courts were instituted.

1928 (Spain): G.R. Lafora worked on a project for a new Criminal Code by keeping in mind some special topics such as imputability, extenuating circumstances, psychiatric expertise, and dangerousness.

In the Thirties (Germany): F. Alexander and H. Staub organized some Courses on Forensic Psychology for lawyers.

1945 (France): The Ordinance n. 45-174 (February, 2nd) on Juvenile delinquency gave raise to the practice of legal psychology.

1922: W. M. Marston held the first University chair in Legal Psychology.

1929: D. Slesinger was the first teacher of Psychology in a Law School.

1939: Institution of the Family Conciliation Court in Los Angeles, to mediate family conflicts.

After the 2nd World War…

1948: Translation of F. Alexander & H. Staub, Der Verbrecher und seine Richter, by Veltri.

1954: L. Battistelli, La bugia in tribunale (Lies in Court).

1966: Translation of E. Mira y López, Manual de psicologia juridica.

1973: G. Gulotta, Psicoanalisi e responsabilità penale (Psychoanalysis and responsibility).

1976: G. Gulotta, La vittima (The victim) (This began the series on Forensic and Criminal Psychology-"Collana di Psicologia Giuridica e Criminale").

1981: E. Gius and A. Salvini began the "Collana di Psicologia Sociale e Clinica della Devianza" (Series on Social and Clinical Psychology of the Deviance). Then this series became the "Collana di Psicologia dei comportamenti devianti (Series on Psychology of Deviant Behavior).

1987: G. Gulotta, Trattato di psicologia giudiziaria nel sistema penale (Essay on Judiciary Psychology in the Criminal System).

Cedam Publishers began the "Collana Atti e Documenti dell'Istituto Superiore Internazionale di Scienze Criminali" (Series of Proceedings of the International High Institute for Criminal Sciences), supervised by M. Cherif Bassiouni.

1988: G. Gulotta & G. Santi, Dal conflitto al consenso (From conflict to consensus): It is the first Italian book about mediation and psychology of civil law.

1990: Giuffrè Publishers began the "Collana Prospettive di Psicologia Giuridica" (Series on Perspectives of Forensic Psychology), supervised by A. Quadrio.

1995: Quadrio & De Leo, Manuale di psicologia giuridica (Handbook of Forensic Psychology).

1996: Centro Scientifico Publishers began the "Collana di Criminologia Clinica, Psichiatria Forense, Psicologia Giudiziaria" (Series on Clinical Criminology, Forensic Psychiatry, Judiciary Psychology), supervised by U. Fornari.

1997: 1st issue of the "Rivista di Psicologia Giuridica", by the Italian Society of Forensic Psychology.

Monograph of the journal "Kos" on forensic psychology.

2000: Thee first  issue of Psicologia&Giustizia, the on line italian review of forensic psychology.

1954 (Germany): K. Schneider, Die Beurteilung der Zurechnungsfaehigkeit.

1954-1959 (Switzerland): Paper by Fehr, Imboden, Marti & al. who applied the depth psychology to the law.

1967 (Germany): U. Undeutsch, Forensische Psychologie.

1974 (Spain): Anuario di Sociologia y Psicologia Juridicas.

1980 (Spain): L. Muñoz Sabaté, R. Bayés & F. Munné, Introducción a la psicologia juridica.

1981 (Spain): Monograph of the journal "Papeles del Colegio" on forensic psychology.

1981 (U.K.): L. R. C. Haward, Forensic Psychology.

1986 (Spain): J. Burillo & C. Diaz, Psicologia social y sistema penal; J. F. Morales, A. Blanco, C. Huici & J. M. Fernández, PsicologÍa Social Aplicada (some chapters dealt with forensic psychology).

1989-1991 (Spain): The journal "Delinquencia" issued.

1991 (Spain): New monograph of "Papeles del Colegio" on forensic psychology. The Colegio de Psicólogos published the "Anuario de Psicologia Juridica".

1994 (Spain): J. Sobral, R. Arce & A. Prieto, Manual de Psicología Juridíca.

1998 (Spain): M. C. Diaz, Fundamentos de la Psicología Juridíca.

1998 (U.K.): G. H. Gudjonsson, L. R. C. Harward, Forensic Psychology.

1966: H. Kalven & H. Ziesel, The American Jury.

1980s: Some papers about forensic persuasion and communication were issued. The Critical Legal Studies Movement (CLS) perspective is adopted.

Cohn, Bartol, Horowitz and Willging tried to integrate psychological methods with legal requirements.

1997: I. Horowitz, T. Williging & K. Bordens, The Psychology of Law.

Psychologists in the Courtrooms

1966: G. Gulotta and E. Ermentini gave their expert opinion about the reliability of a confession given after a weary examination. They wrote their opinion in a brief for the Court ("parere pro veritate") (April 26, 1966).

1954 (Germany): The Supreme Court of the German Federal Republic allowed witness examination supported by a psychologist/psychiatrist.

1958 (France): Art. 81/7. The judge, independently from the psychiatric evaluation, could elaborate a dossier de personnalité every time he rated it necessary. He could decide for a medical test or a psychological evaluation using all modern psychological instruments. This allows him to consider all aspects involved in criminal personality, causes of crime, and treatment of criminals (c. 174/7). A qualified doctor assisted by a psychologist (c. 173/7) must do this evaluation. The decree D. 16 explained that the evaluation could not be used to search for the crime proofs.

1963 (Poland): The lie detector was allowed to be used during criminal trials.

1965 (U.K.): Surveys by the British Psychological Association, to check the number of expert psychologists participating in trials. The surveys were replied in 1966, 1978, 1985, 1995.

1976 (Poland): The Supreme Court allowed the auxiliary use of the lie detector. Therefore its results needed to be confirmed.

1980s (France): Experts registers were established to be used by Courts, but psychologists were admitted only later.

1987 (Poland): The Supreme Court allowed the use of hypnosis only for therapeutic purposes.

1989 (Spain): The Juvenile Courts were established. Psychologists were often employed as experts.

1993 (France): New Code of Criminal Procedure: psychological expert opinions were allowed (art. 81; 164).

1950s: The Courts of Appeal required expert psychologists and psychiatrists to participate in trials. They preferred the clinical approach.

1954: During a Congress, psychiatrists and physicians established only their opinions could legitimately be used to ascertain criminals' responsibility.

1947: In Florence, the Ufficio Scolastico di Collegamento (Connection School Office) was set up for young persons who showed antisocial tendencies.

1953: Psychologists participated in a Congress on some urgent reforms of the Italian Criminal Procedure.

1955: In Rome, the International Course on Crime and Personality was held at the University Criminology Institute

1956: Psychologists were admitted to Counsels of Juvenile Courts.

1958: The Adults' Observation Centre was instituted at the Rebibbia prison.

1977: The Group on Forensic Psychology and the Section on Forensic Psychology of the Psychology Institute (University of Milano) began their activities.

1978: The Forensic Psychology Division of the SIPs was instituted. It ended in 1995.

1st International Congress of Forensic Psychology, in Milan, on the "Victim of Offence: Prevention and Reparation": the scientific organizer committee was the GPG.

National Congress in Piacenza on "The Homicide Discontrol: Problems of Imputability": the scientific organizer committee was the Section on Forensic Psychology of the University of Milan.

National Congress in Rome, on "Psychology and Justice": the scientific organizer committee was the SIPs Division on Forensic Psychology.

A.Y. 1977-78: First Course on Forensic Psychology, held by G. Gulotta at the Specialization School on Psychology, University of Milan.

1980: Courses on forensic psychology were made compulsory for students of the Specialization School on Psychology, University of Milan.

1984: The Forensic Psychology Centre was instituted at the University of Turin, supervised by Fornari.

1986: Forensic psychology was included among the courses for the degree in Psychology. It started from the A.Y. 1988/89 at the Faculty of Psychology of the University of Rome "La Sapienza".

In Noto and Siracusa, the I.S.I.S.C. organized some workshops on forensic psychology topics.

1987: In Rome, at the Dept. of Developmental and Socialization Processes of the University "La Sapienza" the Centre of Studies on Forensic Psychology of Children and Family started its activities supervised by Dell'Antonio.

Courses on psycho-forensic topics and Specialization Courses were started at the Universities of Rome ("La Sapienza"), Milan (Cattolica), Bologna, Milan (Statale), Genova, Padua, Urbino.

1991: The Culture Centre of the Catholic University of Milan organized the first workshop on forensic psychology at Passo della Mendola, for lawyers and social scientists.

A.Y. 1991-92: L. Bal Filoramo was assigned for 4 years the chair of Forensic Psychology at the University of Turin.

1993: In Rome, at the University "La Sapienza", the International Society of Forensic Psychology started its activities.

Ph.D. courses on Forensic Psychology were set up at the University of Rome "La Sapienza".

1995: The first full professorship on Forensic Psychology was established at the University of Turin. It was assigned to G. Gulotta.

In Rome (then in Milan and Palermo) the GPG began the first two-year Training Course on Forensic Psychology.

1996: The Italian Association of Forensic Psychology was instituted. Its President was G. Gulotta.

The "Carta di Noto" (Noto Paper) was drawn up. The main instructions for the psychological examination of young people were assessed.

The Section of Forensic Psychology was instituted at the Dept. of Psychology, University of Palermo, supervised by A.M. Di Vita.

1996-1997: The Specialization Course on Forensic Psychopathology and Psychology was instituted at the University of Turin, supervised by U. Fornari.

1997: Establishment in Turin of the Italian Academy of Psychology, Psychiatry and Law.

1998: Forensic Psychology Meeting in Turin on "Legal Psychology and Responsibility" (March 21-22, 1998).

Specialization Course on Forensic Psychology, at the University of Palermo, supervised by A.M. Vita.

1953 (Germany): The Juvenile Courts opened their jurisdiction to the crimes against young persons.

1954 (Germany): The German Associations of Psychiatry and Psychology were requested to give their recommendations to improve the Reform of the Criminal Law.

1965 (Spain): The first Dept. of Psychology was instituted at the Prison of Madrid, supervised by Jesus Alarcón. Psychologists were allowed to work in prisons.

1968 (Spain): The Central Dept. for Prison Observation was instituted, with some working equips of psychologists, pedagogists and lawyers.

1971 (Spain): the Counsel of Attorneys of Barcelona instituted The Institute of Forensic Psychology and Sociology.

1975-1982 (Spain): During the democratic transition psychology increased to be used in cases of prevention and penal treatment

1976 (Spain): 1st International Congress of Forensic Psychology, in Barcelona, on "Perspectives of Forensic Psychology".

1978 (Austria): Courses on Psychology were instituted at the Faculties of Law.

1981 (Poland): Project for the Reform of the Code of Criminal Procedure aimed at reducing psychology misuses. In Spain psychologist were permanently admitted in Civil Courts, because of the modification of Civil Law on divorce.

1982 (U.K.): In June the International Conference on British Psychology and Law was held in Swansea.

1983 (Spain): The project for the new Criminal Code allowed the criminological valuation of the defendant. It would be compulsory but not binding.

1986 (Spain): The Section of Psychology and Law was instituted at the Counsel of Attorneys of Barcelona.

1987 (Spain): Psychologists were admitted to clinical equips for forensic and medical treatment.

1988: 1st International Conference of Forensic Psychology, in Maastricht.

1988-1989 (Spain): Psychologists were admitted in Juvenile Courts.

1990: During the 2nd European Conference of Forensic Psychology the EAPL was announced.

1991 (U.K.): 1st Annual Conference of the Division of Criminal and Forensic Psychology, in Canterbury. Topics on the penal law and civil law were discussed. English psychologists complained of the unimportance they were given in adoption cases, compared to the importance of American psychologists in American courtrooms.

In Spain, psychologists were admitted in penal surveillance teams.

1992 (France): The Societé Française de Psychologie Légale was set up by Viaux de Rouen.

1992: The European Association of Psychology and Law (EAPL) was set up.

1996: 6th EAPL International Conference, in Siena (Italy).

1955: In the reformation centres, the presence of an advisory commission – composed by a social assistant, a psychologist, a psychiatrist and other experts of social maladjustment – is compulsory.

1963: Alexander established some courses on Forensic Psychology for lawyers.

1969: American Psychology and Law Society (APLS). It is now a division of the American Psychological Association.

1972: The National Crime Survey (NCS) started to investigate delinquency and crimes.

In 1980s and 1990s the 41st Division of the American Psychological Association ran some research work on forensic psychology at the Universities of Arizona, Nebraska-Lincoln, El Paso (Texas), Virginia, Stanford University, Florida International University and John Jay College of Criminal Justice (New York).

The psychologists took part in the Los Angeles Police Department, Los Angeles Country Sheriff's Department, Federal Bureau of Investigation (Quantico, Virginia), Department of Correction in the USA prisons.

1995: D. Pajardi (Ed.), Danno biologico e danno psicologico (Biological and Psychological Injury).

1981 (Spain): Family Courts were instituted. Psychologists took part in as "family mediators".

1982 (U.K.): The Committee for Marriage Procedure promoted mediation in the cases of divorce and separation.

1947 (USA): The General Service of Mediation and Conciliation was set up. It was a private agency cooperating with the Government to deal with litigations on work matters.

1962 (USA): The Family Conciliation Court of Los Angeles mediated in some cases of divorce.

The 1970s and 1980s (USA): Studies on juries increased. The preferred topics were the criminal and the civil law and the procedural aspects of the substantive law.

1970 (USA): The Uniform Marriage and Divorce Act fixed the criteria for the child custody. It was established as the "best interest of the child". Many States adopted this rule.

1973 (USA): Goldstein, Freud & Solnit wrote Beyond the Best Interests of the Child. They proposed the concept of the "psychological parent" and promoted a larger cooperation of lawyers and mental health operators to decide the best parent to who entrust the child.

1975 (USA): Coogler established the Family Mediation Association to mediate family conflicts.

1980: The White House Conference encouraged the use mediation in all American States.

In California a law about the "joint custody" of children was passed, in the case of divorce. Twenty-six American States adopted similar measures.

1981 (USA): In California a law on the mediation for the custody in cases of divorce issued. Again, some other American States adopted similar measures.

1981-1987 (Australia): The use of hypnosis in forensic contexts increased.

1983 (USA): In Michigan a law states the characteristics of the family mediator, in conformity with the Californian law of 1981.

1953: M. Limoncelli proposed to establish a victims' register.

1968: Paper by G. Gulotta, Le vittime di aggressioni sessuali (The victims of sexual assault), on the journal "Giustizia Penale".

1971: Chapters on victim by A. Ermentini and G. Gulotta in A. Ermentini & G. Gulotta, Psicologia, psicopatologia e delitto (Psychology, Psychopathology and Crime).

1976: G. Gulotta, La vittima (The Victim).

1978: First International Meeting on Victimology, in Milan.

The 1990s: Many centres for the defence of maltreated women and children start up.

1992: The Interdepartmental Research Centre on Victimology was established in Bologna, supervised by A. Balloni.

1994: 10th National Congress of the Italian Criminological Society on Victim and Mediation, in Gargnano.

1995: G. Ponti, Tutela della vittima e mediazione penale (Defence of the victim and penal mediation).

1924 (U.K.): F. T. Jesse coined the English word "murderee" to refer to people specially inclined to become victims of a murder.

1948 (Germany): H. von Hentig wrote some papers in English and German and a book in English, The Criminal and His Victims.

1972-1988 (U.K.): Compensation orders and community service orders were used as penalties by the courts.

1977-1990 (France): Laws set up in 1977, 1981, 1983, 1990 allowed victims of delinquency to ask for compensation from a special compensation committee, independently from the ongoing criminal procedure.

The 1980s (France): Funds were allocated to compensate terrorism victims and their families.

1982 (U.K.): Victimization Surveys (British Crime Surveys).

1985 (France): The AVRE (Association pour les Victimes de la Répression en Exil) was established. Jurists, psychologists, pedagogues, doctors and other professionals work in it.

The 1990s: In all Europe (U.K., Germany, Croatia, etc.) research work about victims was increased. The topic was approached from the psychoanalytic point-of-view and included some other theoretical perspectives.

1997 (France): G. Lopez, Victimologie.

USA

1949: F. Wertham used for the first time the word "victimology" in scientific language, but the Frenchman Mendelsohn, in 1956, claimed its authorship.

1966: First USA Victimization Survey.

1973: First International Symposium on Victimology in Jerusalem.

1979: Compensation services between defendant and victim were admitted by the law. Before that date, they were encouraged to be applied by the Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention and they were used in an informal way.

1985: The General ONU Assembly approved the Declaration of the Base Principles of the Justice towards the Victims of the Crimes and Power Abuse.

1989: First International Survey on Victimization, promoted by UNICRI and Minister of Justice of the Netherlands. It was replied in 1992.

1991: The USA NCS became the National Crime and Victimization Survey

(NCVS).

The 1990s: Victimology was given a notable boost by Fattah, Viano, Doerner & Lab, Wexler, Ochberg, Money, Roberts (who published in 1990 the results of a national survey on services and assistance programs for victims).

Readings

Sobral, J., Arce, R. e Prieto, A. (1994), Manual de Psicología Juridíca, Ediciones Paidos, Barcellona.